Foundations For Socialization

Foundations for Socialization

Socialization is the process of social interaction by which people acquire those behaviors essential for effective participation in society, the process of becoming a social being. It is essential for the renewal of culture and the perpetuation of society. The individual and society are mutually dependent on socialization.

·         Nature and Nurture.  Human socialization presupposes that an adequate genetic endowment and an adequate environment are available. Hereditary and environmental factors interact with and affect each other.

·         Theories of Socialization.  Theories of socialization include functionalist and conflict theory perspectives as well as three microlevel approaches. Social learning theory emphasizes conditioning and observational learning. Cognitive developmental theory argues that socialization proceeds differently in the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operations stages. Symbolic interactionists say reflexive behavior facilitates the development of the self.

·         Agents of Socialization.  One of the most important early agents of socialization is the family. As children grow, peers and schools become important agents of socialization. The mass media, especially television, also serve as agents of socialization.

·         Social Communication.  If they are to adapt to their social environment, human beings must be able to communicate. Communication refers to the process by which people transmit information, ideas, attitudes, and mental states to one another. It includes the verbal and nonverbal processes (body language, paralanguage, proxemics, touch, and artifacts) by which we send and receive messages.

·         Definition of the Situation.  An important part of socialization is learning what constitutes reality-the basic schemes we use to make sense of and understand the social and physical world. Definition of the situation is the interpretation or meaning we give to our immediate circumstances. Our definitions influence our construction of reality, an insight captured by the Thomas theorem.

The Self and Socialization

The formation of the self-the set of concepts we use in defining who we are-is a central part of the socialization process. The self emerges in the course of interaction with other people and represents the ideas we have regarding our attributes, capacities, and behavior. It typically includes an egocentric bias.

·         Charles Horton Cooley: The Looking-Glass Self.  Charles Horton Cooley's notion that our consciousness arises in a social context is exemplified by his concept of thelooking-glass self—a process by which we imaginatively assume the stance of other people and view ourselves as we believe they see us. Self-image is differentiated from self-conception. Self-esteem is governed by reflected appraisals, social comparisons, and self-attribution. Personal efficacy is another aspect of self-evaluation.

·         George Herbert Mead: The Generalized Other.  George Herbert Mead contended that we gain a sense of selfhood by acting toward ourselves in much the same fashion that we act toward others. According to Mead, children typically pass through three stages in developing a full sense of selfhood: the play stage, in which the child plays roles modeled on a significant other; the game stage; and the generalized other stage.

·         Erving Goffman: Impression Management.  Erving Goffman pointed out that only by influencing other people's ideas of us can we hope to predict or control what happens to us. Consequently, we have a stake in presenting ourselves to others in ways that will lead them to view us in a favorable light, a process Goffman callsimpression management. Goffman introduced the dramaturgical approach.

Socialization across the Life Course

Socialization is a continuing, lifelong process. All societies have to deal with the life course that begins with conception and continues through old age and ultimately death.Role socialization involves anticipatory socialization, altering roles, and exiting from roles.

·         Childhood.  Though societies differ in their definitions of childhood, they all begin the socialization process as soon as possible. Children display people-oriented responses at very early ages and develop very quickly in other ways. The "social capital" contained within a family's environment is of vital consequence in channeling and shaping children's futures.

·         Adolescence.  In much of the world, adolescence is not a socially distinct period in the human life span. Children in many countries are socialized to assume adult responsibilities by age 13 and even younger, sometimes by way of puberty rites. Adolescence is not necessarily a turbulent period, nor does a sharp generation gap separate American adolescents from their parents.

·         Young Adulthood.  The developmental and socialization tasks confronting young adults revolve about the core tasks of work and love. Individuals are strongly influenced by age norms and tend to set their personal watches by a social clock. Some social scientists have looked for stages through which young adults typically pass. Others believe that unexpected events play a more important role in development. People locate themselves during the life course not only in terms of social timetables but also in terms of life events.

·         Middle Adulthood.  Middle adulthood is a somewhat nebulous period. The core tasks remain much the same as they were in young adulthood. Increasingly, work is coming to be defined for both men and women as a badge of membership in the larger society. Although economic considerations predominate, people also work as a means to structure their time, interact with other people, escape from boredom, and sustain a positive self-image.

·         Later Adulthood.  The last years of one's life may be filled with more dramatic changes than any previous stage. Retiring, losing one's spouse, becoming disabled, moving to a nursing home or other care facility, and preparing for death all require individuals to change and adapt. Societies differ in the prestige and dignity they accord the aged.

·         Death.  A diagnosis of impending death requires that an individual adjust to a new definition of self. Changes in medical technology and social conditions have made death a different experience from that of earlier times. Americans are grappling with the issue of euthanasia, and the hospice movement has arisen to provide a more humane approach to the dying experie

Tools and Methods in Sociological Research

Tools and methods

Sociological Research Records

Sociologists, in attempt to have a accurate understanding of social relations and human social relations have devised a number of melodies by which these can be accomplished.

Survey Research.

One such method involves what is called survey research.

In the technique, the social scientist attempts to learn about people’s behaviours or attitudes or some other social phenomenon) by asking them to respond to a series of question.

Those questions maybe asked verbally in the course of an interview or posed in writing in a questionnaire and the administration of the questions can be to large sample of people.

·         In some cases, it would be possible to survey the entire population, i.e all the members of the particular group being studied.

·         Those offer however, the sociologists will have to limit the survey to a smaller section or representative’s sample that is assumed to be reflective of the larger population. (in this, all the members of the target population must have equal chance of being selected for the sample.

·         Survey research is probably the most popular and widespread form of non-experimental methodology n sociology today.

• ·         It is a straight forward technique
• ·         Not expensive and relatively easy to conduct
• ·         A large amount of data can be coded and computer – analyzed very quickly.
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However, a number of problems core inherent in this type of research.

·         One can draw samples that are not really representatives of larger populations.

·         One needs to be careful that they develop the questions which ask what they are supposed to ask, while at the same time researching the question clear enough for the respondents to ask them.

·         One has to deal with the problem of not receiving truthful responses or answers- the problem of truthfulness.

The logic of survey research is based on the assumption that people why they are behaving ( or thinking ) in a certain way, and what they are unwilling to share their knowledge with the researcher. Very after, however, this assumption turns out to be invalid. Subjects in both oral n written surveys can and do provide less than truthful information with great frequency.

Sometimes through lack of truthfulness reflects the fact that the respondents are asked to admit to illegal or deviant behaviors. At other times, the behaviours being studied are not in themselves illegal or deviant, but are nevertheless embarrassing.

In addition respondents might lodge on their answers if they feel that what they say would jeopardize them.

Responses to survey questions cannot and shouldn’t always be taken at face value.

Field Research/Observation Studies

The most obvious way to observe society is to go where it is happening and watch. This called field research. As the name might imply, the technique involves the researcher directly observing the subjects’ behaviours or expressions of attitudes, instead or rather than relying on their reporting of what they think or do.

The two main variables of these studies are distinguished from one another on the basis of the degree if the researchers’ involvement with the observed group.

In the neutral observation study the researcher remains removed while the subjects go about their normal activities.

·         This observation can be done through a one- way mirror, or an audio video device installed in a room ( or elsewhere ) or being seated n the back of a room  (or class)

However, in the latter case, one can generate the Hawthorne effect

This is the instance in which subjects knowing that they are participating in a scientific investigation, may change their behaviours or attitudes in ways not fully known to the researcher that invalid the results of the study.

A possible solution to this problem lies in what is termed participant observation research.

Here the researcher does not remain an outsider but joins the group being studied and participates in its activities. In some cases the researchers identity may be known to the group members (i.e. overt participants observation) but more commonly the researcher engages in covert observation, that is the researcher is not known as such to group members. As far as they are concerned, the researcher is one of them.

·       

  However, significant problems are associated with this type of research strategy, especially the covert verbally.

To maintain cover, the researcher must deceive or lie to the subjects =, thus robbing them of  the option of choosing not to participate in the study, or what social scientist call informal consent.

This can become especially problematic if the research could in any way cause harm to the subjects as a result of something they did or said in the presence of the researcher whose existence was unknown to them.

Experimental Research

The objective of experimental research is to explain observed social patterns or to predict future ones.

Experimental research provides data to test hypotheses.

E.g. Hypothesis – the higher the level of education, the higher the yearly income earned. i.e  ( the statement of a relationship between independent and dependent variables.)

All time experimented designs involve the systematic comparison of at least two groups of subjects who are initially equivalent in all characteristics, especially the dependent variable.

The control group consists of subjects who will not be exposed to the experimented condition (some deliberate change in the independent variable).

This group essentially serves as the baseline against which the second or experimental group will be measured.

The experimental group members will be exposed to the experimental condition that is the focus of the research. i.e higher education. After the exposure of the experimental group, the two groups again will be measured on the dependent variable – i.e yearly salary

Any changes that are now observed between them will be attributed t the effects of the experimental condition (higher education ) since that is the only characterization of the groups that is now different.

The experimental method in sociology is suitable only for small- group research. One cannot assign large groups to experimental control groups and then manipulated their environment in order to test  the validity of some hypothesis.

Nevertheless, experimental methodologies have contributed a significant body of information to sociological knowledge particularly in the area of group dynamics. Small finding have formed or can largely serve as the starting point for larger scale research.

Context Analysis

This involves the examination of records, censuses, papers, books, letters, political speeches, newspaper editorials and existing statistics. Sociologist can analyse the contexts as Durkheim did with suicide rates of various countries and regions.      

Documentation or use of secondary sources or Content Analysis

Content Analysis is the systematic analysis of the content of texts or pictures or information gathered from sources of ready-mode data.

Content analysis is to analyze systematically the content of information which has been observed from, secondary sources such as documents etc.

Documentary research is to assist in data collection.

Documentation or Documentary Data

This can be written, public or forward

Documentary Date

Written:

Ø  Boots

Ø  Newspapers

Ø  Magazines

Ø  Letters

Non-Written

Ø  Film

Ø  Telephone programs

Ø  Pictures

Ø  Drawings

Ø  Photographs

Public

Ø  Historical Documents

Ø  Statistical Report

Ø  Census Schedules

Ø  Employment Records

Ø  Health Records

Ø  Income Tax Return

Ø  Population Records

Ø  Registers

Ø  Information from the mass Media

Ø  Novels and words of fiction

Ø   The words of other researches

Private

Ø  Personal Document, E.g.;

·         Diaries

·         Auto-biographers

·         Letters

·         Essays

Therefore secondary is all data which are not observed from first-hand by researchers.

They can be compared with Primary Data which are obtained through the sociologist own direct research.

Ø  Secondary Data are used when researchers   are unable to obtain primary data, where published data are more useful/ accurate/ appropriate, and it is used to support first-hand investigation.

Advantages

1.      It can provide a body of information which would be difficult for these individuals to collect on his own. It is therefore much easier to obtain.

2.      It is not as expensive as the survey.

3.      The recorder does not have to collect information first-hand,eg. Published statistics

4.      The information can cover a long time span

5.       The published data can be the focus of the researcher’s investigation.

Disadvantages

1.      There could be a problem in obtaining the information needed.

2.      The information does not have to be g (necessarily).

3.      One need to know of c of the information is representative.

4.       Sometimes the information can be in accurate

Notes From module 1

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